Memphis sanitation strike - Knowledge (XXH) (2024)

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procedure, fair promotion policies, sick leave, pension programs, health insurance, payroll deduction of union dues, and union recognition through a written contract. Mayor Loeb continued to refuse union recognition and dues withdrawn from wages because he argued that AFSCME officials only wanted to fill their pockets with the hard-earned money of local Memphians.Loeb believed that he was the sanitation workers' keeper and he would not abandon his "moral obligation" to protect them from union officials.Local Black leaders and sanitation workers saw this "rhetoric smacked of paternalism reminiscent of

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man". Ben Jones, another striker with 43 years on the job, spoke of the conditions that all sanitation workers had to deal with, including how heavy all the garbage bins were and how they would leak all over them. They would end up at the end of the day smelling real bad when they would return to department headquarters and would go home to families who did not want to be around them. As they would march down Main St., looters would ransack stores and tear gas was thrown at them, stated Rev. Leslie Moore. Moore also speaks of the song they would sing titled, "

640:, two sanitation workers, were crushed to death in a garbage compactor where they were taking shelter from the rain. Two other men had died this way in 1964, but the city refused to replace the defective equipment. Local 1733 held a strike meeting on February 11 where over 400 workers explained that the city refused to provide decent wages and working conditions. The workers wanted immediate action but the city refused. The next day fewer than 200 employees showed up for work, and only 38 of the 108 garbage trucks continued to move.6212:

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616:) was successfully formed by T.O. Jones. However, the city officials refused to recognize the union. In 1966, the union attempted another strike, but it was thwarted before it began when the city prepared strikebreakers and threatened to jail leaders. The failure of the strike was largely due to the lack of support of Memphis’ religious community or middle class.783:", Black armed men with iron pipes and bricks, and carrying signs, began smashing windows and looting along the stores. Police immediately reacted to the riot, moving into the crowd with nightsticks, mace, teargas, and gunfire. They arrested 280 individuals and 60 were reported injured, most of them Black. Lawson told the demonstration participants to return to4564:

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all down." King encouraged the group to continue to support the sanitation strike by enacting a citywide work stoppage.King promised to return to Memphis on March 22 to lead a protest through the city. On March 22, a massive snowstorm hit Memphis, causing the organizers to reschedule the march for March 28.

692:, the city council liaison to the mayor, accused Loeb of deliberately impeding the council's progress in resolving the strike. The marchers faced police brutality in the forms of mace, tear gas, and billy clubs. On February 24, while addressing the strikers after a "police assault" on their protests, Reverend657:

laughter and boos. Loeb then observed and spoke, "I have sat here and taken quite a bit of abuse and I do not appreciate it, and I have not given any abuse back, your jobs are important and I promise you the garbage is going to be picked up, bet on it." Thereupon the mayor stormed out of the room.

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The AFSCME leadership in Washington was initially upset to learn of the strike, which they thought would not succeed. P. J. Ciampa, a field organizer for the AFL–CIO, reportedly reacted to news of the strike saying, "Good God Almighty, I need a strike in Memphis like I need another hole in the head!"

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announced that the city would offer $ 50,000 in tax-free grants to the 14 surviving 1968 sanitation strikers, who were either still on payroll to maintain standard of living or could not retire in relative comfort as they had to forgo pension and thus receiving a small Social Security check monthly.

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came to Memphis to praise a 25,000 crowd of labor and civil right activists for their unity stating, "You are demonstrating that we can stick together. You are demonstrating that we are all tied in a single garment of destiny, and that if one Black person suffers, if one Black person is down, we are

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held over a thousand supporters of the movement. Reverend Ralph Jackson charged the crowd to not rest until "justice and jobs" prevailed for all Black Americans. That night they raised $ 1,600 to support the Movement. Rev. Jackson declared further that once the immediate demands of the strikers were

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to downtown. On February 22, workers and their supporters performed a sit in at city hall where they pressured the City Council to recognize their union and recommend wages to increase. The mayor rejected the request. The first large-scale protest of Loeb's policies came on February 23. It was given

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On Monday February 12, 1968, 930 of 1100 sanitation workers did not show up for work, including 214 of 230 sewer drainage workers. Elmore Nickelberry, who was one of the strikers during this time speaks of Mayor Loeb and how it was impossible to negotiate with him, due to him being a "stubborn

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were mostly Black. They enjoyed few of the protections that other workers had; their pay was low and they could be fired (usually by White supervisors) without warning. In 1960 the average sanitation worker in Memphis earned $ 0.94–$ 1.14 an hour, however in 1968 sanitation laborers earned $ 1.60 an

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In the early 1960s, Black sanitation workers united together to gain better wages and working conditions, fighting the racial discrimination in the Memphis Public Works Department.The first attempt to strike was in 1963, but it failed because there was inadequate organization.Many Black

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chamber; there, they were met with 40–50 police officers. Loeb led the workers to a nearby auditorium, where he asked them to return to work. At one point, Loeb grabbed the microphone from AFSCME organizer Bill Lucy and shouted for the strikers to "go back to work!". The crowdresponded with

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was elected as mayor against the opposition of Memphis's Black community. Loeb had served previously as the head of the sanitation division (as the elected Public Works Commissioner), and during his tenure oversaw grueling work conditions — including no city-issued uniforms, no restrooms, and no

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attracted 42,000 participants. Reuther wrote a check for $ 50,000 to the striking sanitation workers, the largest contribution from any outside source. The strike ended on April 16, 1968, with a settlement that included union recognition and wage increases, although additional strikes had to be

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arrives in Memphis, exclaiming that the strike will only end when the workers’ demands are met. Wurf worked with national union representative P.J. Ciampa and local union leaders to edit the strikers' list of demands. The revised version of demands included 10% wage increase, a grievance

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On March 28, King and Reverend Lawson led strikers and supporters in a march in downtown Memphis. City officials estimated that 22,000 students skipped school to participate in the march. King arrived late to find a massive crowd on the brink of chaos, causing Lawson and King to call off the

878:"I've seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land! And so I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord!"936:

In October 2017, Baxter Leach represented the sanitation strikers at the National Civil Rights Museum Freedom Awards. Leach was one of the original sanitation workers who participated in the Memphis sanitation strike and served as the public face of the surviving sanitation workers.

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people were afraid to unionize due to the fear of persecution, which was justified in 1963, when 33 sanitation workers were fired immediately after attending an organizing meeting. In November 1964, Local 1733 of the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (

508:. The deaths served as a breaking point for more than 1,300 African American men from the Memphis Department of Public Works as they demanded higher wages, time and a half overtime, dues check-off, safety measures, and pay for the rainy days when they were told to go home.1765:'s involvement proved to many black Memphians that the newspapers weren't that different from their sister papers in Mississippi and elsewhere in the South. Blacks picketed both newspapers within a week after the end of the sanitation strike to protest the coverage.1750:

felt they had kept their heads largely above the fray during the civil rights battles across the South in the early to mid-1960s, particularly in comparison to the blatantly racist and rabble-rousing histrionics in the two majors newspapers of Mississippi, the

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Upon taking office, Loeb increased regulations on the city's workers and appointed Charles Blackburn as the Public Works Commissioner. Loeb ordered Jones and the union to deal with Blackburn; Blackburn said he had no authority to change the city's policies.

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wrote editorials (and published cartoons) praising the mayor for his toughness. Newspapers and television stations generally portrayed the mayor as calm and reasonable, and the protesters and organizers as unruly and disorganized.

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798:. Despite police pressure to have a private closed-casket funeral in their home, the family held the funeral at Clayborn and had an open casket. Following the funeral, the sanitation workers marched peacefully downtown.6539:

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hour and garbage truck drivers earned $ 1.90 an hour ($ 14 and $ 17 respectively in 2023 dollars). In addition to their sanitation work, often including unpaid overtime, many worked other jobs or appealed to

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787:. The police followed the crowd back to the church where they released tear gas and clubbed people. In the midst of the chaos, police officer Leslie Dean Jones shot and killed sixteen-year-old826:, a local college newspaper, reported the events of the strike from the sanitation workers' perspective. These publications emphasized the brutality of the police reactions to the protestors.441:

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1268:; weeks later, in Memphis, a handful of black students followed their example, sitting in and getting arrested for breaking the segregation laws at the city's segregated public libraries.5244:

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858:. Local 186 had the largest Black membership in Memphis, and allowed the strikers to use their union hall for meetings. Most White union leaders in Memphis expressed concern about530:

refused to recognize the strike and rejected the City Council vote, insisting that only he possessed the power to recognize the union.The Memphis sanitation strike prompted

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Membership in Local 1733 increased substantially during the course of the strike, more than doubling in the first few days. Its relationship with other unions was complex.

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However, both AFSCME and the AFL–CIO sent representatives to Memphis; these organizers came to support the strike upon recognizing the determination of the workers.

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554:. Black people were excluded from unions and paid much less than Whites—conditions which persisted and sometimes worsened in the first half of the 20th century.5875:

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said, "For at the heart of racism is the idea that a man is not a man, that a person is not a person. You are human beings. You are men. You deserve dignity."

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The mix of segregation, low wages, anti-union sentiment, and machine politics in Memphis created a particularly deadly legacy for public sector employees.

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threatened to force the City of Memphis to honor its agreements. The period was a turning point for Black activism and union activity in Memphis.

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Jones, Lucy, Ciampa, and other union leaders, asked the striking workers to focus on labor solidarity and downplay racism. The workers refused.

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By February 21, the sanitation workers established a daily routine of meeting at noon with nearly a thousand strikers and then marching from

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907:, urged Loeb to make concessions to the strikers in order to avoid violence. Loeb refused. On April 8, a completely silent march with the562:

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The local news media were generally favorable to Loeb, portraying union leaders (and later Martin Luther King Jr.) as meddling outsiders.

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met, the movement would focus on ending police brutality, as well as improving housing and education across the city for Black Memphians.

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1928:"Dr. Martin Luther King remembered as National Civil Rights Museum Freedom Awards go to both the humble and the celebrated"542:

The city of Memphis had a long history of segregation and unfair treatment for Black residents. The influential politician

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648:", as they would march. Some of those who did show up walked off when they found out about the apparent strike.365:

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Biles, Roger (September 1, 1984). "Ed crump versus the unions: The labor movement in Memphis during the 1930s".

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In 2018, Leach along with the other surviving sanitation strikers was presented with the NAACP Vanguard Award.

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652:, infuriated, refused to meet with the strikers. The workers marched from their union hall to a meeting at the341:

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534:'s presence, where he famously gave the "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech a day before his assassination.1954:"THE LAST SURVIVORS OF THE 1968 MEMPHIS SANITATION WORKERS STRIKE ARE FEATURED IN THIS STRIKING PHOTO SERIES"6466:

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1162:"Timeline of Events Surrounding the 1968 Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike · HERB: Resources for Teachers"6365:

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after World War II. Civil rights and unionism in Memphis were thus heavily stifled all through the 1950s.

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565:, a group which Crump called communist "nigg*r unionism." However, organized Black labor was set back by403:

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523:. The AFSCME was chartered in 1964 by the state; the city of Memphis refused to recognize it.6380:

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680:."The sanitation workers were men and were more than capable of making their own decisions.6300:

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Joseph Schwantner: New Morning for the World; Nicolas Flagello: The Passion of Martin Luther King

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1980:"Baxter Leach, one of the 1968 sanitation workers who sparked a movement in Memphis, has died"1812:

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862:. Tommy Powell, president of the Memphis Labor Council, was one of few local White advocates.780:

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903:, which had already begun in Washington, D.C., Federal officials, including Attorney General6478:

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comments embody the message behind the iconic placards from the sanitation workers' strike,

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Risen, Clay (2009). "King, Johnson, and The Terrible, Glorious Thirty-First Day of March".

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By February 15, there was 10,000 tons of noticeable piled up trash, and Loeb began to hire

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demonstration as violence erupted. After peacefully marching for several blocks, singing "

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You Must Be from the North: Southern White Women in the Memphis Civil Rights Movement

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1336:"The Accident on a Garbage Truck That Led to the Death of Martin Luther King, Jr"6483:

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The Accident on a Garbage Truck That Led to the Death of Martin Luther King, Jr.

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Going Down Jericho Road: The Memphis Strike, Martin Luther King's Last Campaign

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Going down Jericho Road: The Memphis strike, Martin Luther King's last campaign

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Going Down Jericho Road: The Memphis Strike, Martin Luther King's Last Campaign

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Going Down Jericho Road: The Memphis Strike, Martin Luther King's Last Campaign

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Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs. Wayne State University.

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Going down Jericho Road the Memphis strike, Martin Luther King's last campaign

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Going down Jericho Road the Memphis strike, Martin Luther King's last campaign

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Going down Jericho Road the Memphis strike, Martin Luther King's last campaign

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Going down Jericho Road the Memphis strike, Martin Luther King's last campaign

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Honey, Michael K. (2007). "Hambone's Meditations: The Failure of Community".

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grievance procedure for the numerous occasions on which they were underpaid.

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Honey, Michael K. (2007). "Dr. King, Labor, and the Civil Rights Movement".

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began on February 12, 1968, in response to the deaths of sanitation workers

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The Memphis sanitation strike was led by T.O. Jones and had the support of

1047:""I am a Man!": Race, Masculinity, and the 1968 Memphis Sanitation Strike"6441:

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1694:"When MLK Was Killed, He Was In Memphis Fighting For Economic Justice"517:

American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME)

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6320:

4138:

2072:

2064:

Strike-related photos, audio, and documents from the AFSCME Archives.

1808:

A nation on fire: America in the wake of the King assassination

1428:"Memphis Sanitation Workers Remember the 1968 Strike, 40 years later"899:(April 4, 1968) intensified the strike. Mayor Loeb and others feared576:

419:

743:— "Sanitation Workers' Prayer" recited by Reverend Malcolm Blackburn6044:

1093:"1968 Memphis Sanitation Strikers Inducted Into Labor Hall Of Fame"759:

came to Memphis to rally the sanitation workers.On March 18,

2873:

887:

572:

The civil rights struggle was renewed in the 1960s, starting with

550:, that acted violently toward the Black population and maintained521:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

520:

870:

On April 3, King returned to Memphis where he famously gave his "

1805:

Risen, Clay (2009). "April 5: 'Any Man's Death Diminishes Me'".

1597:(1ed.). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. p.99:

Black sanitation workers exposed to dangerous working conditions

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1528:

A nation on fire: America in the wake of the King assassination

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American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees

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The Martin Luther King Jr., Research and Education Institute

546:

had created a city police force, much of it culled from the

163:

American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees

5619:

1724:

Covering for the bosses: labor and the Southern press

1398:"1968 AFSCME Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike Chronology"1308:

Honey, Michael K. (2007). "Struggles of the Working Poor".

854:

During the strike, Local 1733 received direct support from

6177:

Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War

1264:

On February 1, the first lunch-counter 'sit-ins' began in

178:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

5988:

Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library, Washington, D.C.

1864:

1862:

140:

Increased wages for sanitation workers by City of Memphis

1794:

from the original on October 22, 2016 – via DLynx.

892:

President Obama met former members of the strike in 2011

587:

were particularly active in Memphis during this period.

4323:

Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam

4101:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"1284:. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. p.59.90:

Racial discrimination faced by black sanitation workers

5851:

African American founding fathers of the United States

4347:

African American founding fathers of the United States

2700:

Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement

2565:

John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights

1189:

Honey, Michael K. (2007). "A Plantation in the City".

955:

List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States

2110:

The American Prospect explains why MLK was in Memphis

1127:"Memphis, Tennessee, sanitation workers strike, 1968"1125:

Navarro, Kylin; Rennebohm, Max (September 12, 2010).

5761:

Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.

561:, Black people were able to organize as part of the6389:

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Web Exhibit on the strike from the AFSCME Archives.

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of Labor and Urban Affairs. Wayne State University.

1370:Honey, Michael K. (2007). "On Strike for Respect".200:

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105:

84:

64:

54:

25:

2120:AFSCME provides a time-line of the relevant events2035:

2007:"Sanitation strikers receive NAACP Vanguard Award"1674:. U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division1561:

1525:

1493:

313:McSwain v. Co. Board of Ed. of Anderson Co., Tenn.688:the moniker "mini riot" after it turned violent.2931:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)768:March 28 riot and police shooting of Larry Payne5804:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)2921:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)2854:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights2745:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County1487:

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5228:Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act5222:U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations4766:Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?4594:

4308:List of lynching victims in the United States2646:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States2158:

1841:Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture1476:. New York: W.W.Norton & Co. p.119.435:

276:

6376:Third World Liberation Front strikes of 19686227:1968 Democratic National Convention protests5993:Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library, San Jose2097:, from Michael Honey, a professor of History1830:

1828:

1761:. ... Yet the sanitation strike of 1968 and1726:. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.5543:Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story4622:Speeches, writings, movements, and protests2775:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights1184:

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6555:February 1968 events in the United States6251:1968 student demonstrations in Yugoslavia6157:Human rights movement in the Soviet Union5312:The Witness: From the Balcony of Room 3064380:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument168:Community on the Move for Equality (COME)6336:Occupation of the Student Union Building6025:Civil rights movement in popular culture5831:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change5753:Civil rights movement in popular culture4822:March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom4415:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change2455:University of Georgia desegregation riot2042:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.1897:"Memphis Compensates Sanitation Workers"1811:. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.1742:Like Memphis itself, the editors at the1532:. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.960:St. Petersburg sanitation strike of 1968794:On April 2, Payne's funeral was held in747:National civil rights leaders including319:Clinton High School desegregation crisis222:Southern Christian Leadership Conference172:Southern Christian Leadership Conference137:local 1733 recognized by City of Memphis6545:Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.4670:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence4329:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence4066:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"4061:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"987:

737:For OURS is justice, jobs, and dignity,372:Hattie Cotton Elementary School bombing353:Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.128:Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.6565:April 1968 events in the United States6560:March 1968 events in the United States6489:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia6172:Northern Ireland civil rights movement4243:African-American women in the movement2695:White House Conference on Civil Rights2526:"Segregation now, segregation forever"2115:AFSCME remembers the historical strike1438:from the original on December 21, 20211120:

1118:

1116:

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1017:from the original on November 28, 20196570:African-American history of Tennessee2684:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections1847:from the original on February 6, 20121555:

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1013:, Stanford University, June 2, 2017,822:, an African American newspaper, and646:Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me Around94:Death of Echol Cole and Robert Walker7:

6291:Columbia University protests of 19686281:Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 19686090:1968–69 Japanese university protests4452:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument2916:Regional Council of Negro Leadership2864:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party2810:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights2287:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company2212:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore1876:. Stanford University. June 21, 20171835:Honey, Michael (December 25, 2009).1672:"Larry Payne - Notice to Close File"1156:

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965:Charleston sanitation strike of 1969563:Congress of Industrial Organizations387:Z. Alexander Looby residence bombing6003:Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.2859:Lowndes County Freedom Organization2795:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters2465:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address1007:"Memphis Sanitation Workers Strike"727:Give us this day our Dues Checkoff,6510:1960s strikes in the United States5906:Statues of Martin Luther King Jr.5642:King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew5198:(now National Civil Rights Museum)4303:African-American churches attacked2869:Montgomery Improvement Association2844:Georgia Council on Human Relations2829:Council of Federated Organizations2800:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)2558:16th Street Baptist Church bombing2516:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot2322:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom2226:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents2089:, at Stanford's KingPapers website2087:Memphis Sanitation Worker's Strike2005:Neely, Tiffany (January 9, 2018).1926:Beifuss, John (October 18, 2017).1740:from the original on May 7, 2016.1720:"Labor, civil rights, and Memphis"1670:Dobinski, Karla (April 18, 2023).1623:"Larry Payne Notice to Close File"1500:(1sted.). New York: Norton.1195:(1.ed.). New York : Norton.14:

6316:March of the One Hundred Thousand5457:Alpha Man: The Brotherhood of MLK4375:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute4248:Jews in the civil rights movement2137:Memphis Sanitation Workers Strike1408:from the original on June 6, 20111137:from the original on July 7, 20121131:Global Nonviolent Action Database739:Forever and ever. Amen. FREEDOM!6210:

5770:King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.5649:"By the Time I Get to Arizona" (4718:Second Emancipation Proclamation4569:Civil rights movement portal4562:

4410:Freedom Riders National Monument4152:The Kingdom of God Is Within You2664:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches2623:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests2510:Second Emancipation Proclamation1895:Henry, Wiley (August 10, 2017).1843:. Tennessee Historical Society.1376:(1ed.). New York: Norton.1314:(1ed.). New York: Norton.970:

717:Our Henry, who art in City Hall,39:

6515:1968 labor disputes and strikes6474:Segregation in Northern Ireland5902:Safe House Black History Museum5821:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial4437:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum4425:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial2901:National Council of Negro Women2839:Deacons for Defense and Justice2139:, Civil Rights Digital Library.1978:Chaney, Kim (August 27, 2019).1952:White, Erin (January 5, 2018).725:In Memphis, as it is in heaven.707:On the evening of February 26,60:(2months and 4days)6580:History of racism in Tennessee6530:Civil rights movement protests5876:U.S. Capitol Rotunda sculpture4854:Mississippi March Against Fear2317:Mansfield school desegregation1568:. W. W. Norton & Company.1:

6520:History of Memphis, Tennessee6261:1968 Red Square demonstration5577:March! For Martin Luther King4798:Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom4447:National Voting Rights Museum4390:Civil Rights Movement Archive4189:Lynching in the United States4076:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"2531:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door2504:University of Chicago sit-ins2271:Davis v. Prince Edward County2095:Labor Rights are Human Rights2081:, at Socialist Worker website58:February 12 – April 16, 19686241:1968 Polish political crisis6197:West German student movement6122:Black Consciousness Movement5841:National Civil Rights Museum5836:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church4679:I've Been to the Mountaintop4442:National Civil Rights Museum4298:March on Washington Movement4283:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church2752:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.928:In July 2017, Memphis Mayor872:I've been to the mountaintop638:Echol Cole and Robert Walker519:and the local branch of the506:Echol Cole and Robert Walker119:I've Been to the Mountaintop45:The strikers' slogan was "I6550:Labor disputes in Tennessee6447:Racism in the United States6412:Counterculture of the 1960s6233:The whole world is watching6202:Women's liberation movement5978:sculpture, Portland, Oregon5968:Landmark for Peace Memorial5693:"Symphony of Brotherhood" (5616:Pride (In the Name of Love)4838:Selma to Montgomery marches4737:Letter from Birmingham Jail4086:"This Little Light of Mine"2834:Dallas County Voters League2780:Atlanta Negro Voters League2543:Letter from Birmingham Jail2250:Brown v. Board of Education1837:"Memphis Sanitation Strike"1778:"Law Officers Lit Cauldron"1649:"Larry Payne: Un(re)solved"733:And lead us not into shame,729:And forgive us our boycott,579:in the summer of 1960. The366:Kelly v. Board of Education324:Clinton High School bombing6598:

5866:Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity5809:Martin Luther King Jr. Day5590:Martin Luther King's Dream4420:Martin Luther King Jr. Day4288:Holt Street Baptist Church4258:16th Street Baptist Church3242:Annie Bell Robinson Devine2886:Nashville Student Movement2816:An Appeal for Human Rights2079:King's Unfinished Struggle2034:Honey, Michael K. (2007).1718:Atkins, Joseph B. (2008).1627:U.S. Department of Justice1560:Honey, Michael K. (2007).1472:Honey, Michael K. (2008).1402:AFSCME Local 1733 pamphlet1338:. Southern Hollows podcast1266:Greensboro, North Carolina883:Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.771:

620:Early course of the strike382:Nashville Student Movement6326:Memphis sanitation strike6208:

6107:1968 movement in Pakistan6019:America in the King Years5799:

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348:Memphis sanitation strike342:Watson v. City of Memphis304:

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26:Memphis sanitation strike6306:King assassination riots6266:1968 uprising in Senegal6162:Mexican Movement of 19685826:National Historical Park5564:Abraham, Martin and John5042:(strategist / colleague)4846:Chicago Freedom Movement2785:Atlanta Student Movement2734:Civil Rights Act of 19682659:1964–1965 Scripto strike2640:Civil Rights Act of 19642538:1963 Birmingham campaign2431:Civil Rights Act of 19602355:Civil Rights Act of 19571870:"Reuther, Walter Philip"719:Hard-headed be thy name.671:International President6008:King County, Washington5861:FBI–King suicide letter4337:Voter Education Project4091:"We Shall Not Be Moved"3752:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.3187:Josephine Dobbs Clement2613:Chester school protests2608:Twenty-fourth Amendment2570:Detroit Walk to Freedom2312:Tallahassee bus boycott2233:Baton Rouge bus boycott1564:Going Down Jericho Road1457:Honey, Michael (2008).1282:Going Down Jericho Road1280:Honey, Michael (2007).6525:Martin Luther King Jr.6432:Antisemitism in Poland6341:Poor People's Campaign6276:Battle of Valle Giulia6246:1968 protests in Egypt6132:Black Power Revolution6102:1968 movement in Italy5871:Season for Nonviolence5684:"Never Alone Martin" (5406:"Great X-Pectations" (5342:King in the Wilderness4963:Martin Luther King Sr.4939:Martin Luther King III4881:Poor People's Campaign4830:St. Augustine movement4790:Montgomery bus boycott4610:Martin Luther King Jr.4550:Movement photographers3792:Bernice Johnson Reagon3512:Martin Luther King Sr.3507:Martin Luther King Jr.3077:William Holmes Borders2849:Highlander Folk School2739:Poor People's Campaign2592:St. Augustine movement2442:Gomillion v. Lightfoot2365:Katz Drug Store sit-in2336:Royal Ice Cream sit-in2298:Montgomery bus boycott1763:Martin Luther King Jr.1133:. Swarthmore College.893:

886:

774:Killing of Larry Payne761:Martin Luther King Jr.745:

532:Martin Luther King Jr.228:Martin Luther King Jr.123:Martin Luther King Jr.96:from garbage compactor6462:Years of Lead (Italy)6117:Anti-nuclear movement6112:Civil Rights Movement4979:Christine King Farris4971:Alberta Williams King4756:Conscience for Change4699:Stride Toward Freedom4385:Civil Rights Memorial4273:Bethel Baptist Church3922:Charles Kenzie Steele3367:Audrey Faye Hendricks3272:Myrlie Evers-Williams3252:Patricia Stephens Due3222:Abraham Lincoln Davis3157:Colia Lafayette Clark2911:Operation Breadbasket2906:National Urban League2653:Katzenbach v. McClung2521:Atlanta's Berlin Wall2174:Civil rights movement1901:The Tennessee Tribune1434:. February 17, 2008.1432:The Commercial Appeal1252:. New York : Norton.1099:on September 10, 20121045:Estes, Steve (2000).891:

809:The Commercial Appeal772:Further information:714:

293:Civil Rights Movement33:Civil Rights Movement6457:Second-wave feminism6397:1968 Summer Olympics6331:Miss America protest6167:Movement of 22 March6127:Black power movement6030:Lee–Jackson–King Day5983:Kennedy–King College5442:"Return of the King"4430:other King memorials4405:Freedom Rides Museum4342:1960s counterculture4293:Edmund Pettus Bridge3972:Walter Francis White3877:Alexander D. Shimkin2391:New Year's Day March2360:Ministers' Manifesto2207:Executive Order 99812103:The Last Wish of MLK1446:– via Youtube.915:, and UAW president897:King's assassination721:Thy kingdom C.O.M.E.690:Gwen Robinson Awsumb624:At the end of 1967,74:Charles Mason Temple16:1968 American strike6381:Tlatelolco massacre6296:Delano grape strike6286:Central Park be-ins6142:Cultural Revolution5895:Hope Moving Forward5660:Shed a Little Light5423:New York Undercover5418:"The Promised Land"5245:Conspiracy theories5026:(mentor, colleague)4814:Birmingham campaign4168:Mary McLeod Bethune4129:Sermon on the Mount4096:"We Shall Overcome"3677:William Lewis Moore3457:Frank Minis Johnson3432:Richie Jean Jackson3387:Donald L. Hollowell3192:Charles E. Cobb Jr.2997:Gwendolyn Armstrong2992:William G. Anderson2972:Victoria Gray Adams2936:The Freedom Singers2790:Black Panther Party2575:March on Washington2488:Garner v. Louisiana2449:Boynton v. Virginia950:Labor Hall of Honor838:National leadership567:anti-communist fear515:, president of the404:Chattanooga sit-ins6321:May 1968 in France6301:East L.A. walkouts6182:Red Power movement5889:sculpture, Atlanta5673:Up to the Mountain5460:(2011 documentary)5433:Selma, Lord, Selma5355:(2020 documentary)5345:(2018 documentary)5315:(2008 documentary)5292:Our Friend, Martin5285:(1970 documentary)5128:Fred Shuttlesworth4923:Coretta Scott King4661:How Long, Not Long4643:Give Us the Ballot4485:Michael Eric Dyson4370:In popular culture4253:Fifth Circuit Four4237:Loving v. Virginia4230:Hernandez v. Texas4209:Buchanan v. Warley4201:Separate but equal4195:Plessy v. Ferguson4158:Frederick Douglass3992:Robert F. Williams3902:Kelly Miller Smith3882:Fred Shuttlesworth3807:Frederick D. Reese3787:George Raymond Jr.3777:A. Philip Randolph3757:Fay Bellamy Powell3672:Queen Mother Moore3557:Z. Alexander Looby3502:Coretta Scott King3447:Barbara Rose Johns3427:Jimmie Lee Jackson3352:William E. Harbour3132:Stokely Carmichael3047:Randolph Blackwell2717:King assassination2706:Loving v. Virginia2690:March Against Fear2670:How Long, Not Long2548:Children's Crusade2499:Cambridge movement2436:Ax Handle Saturday2401:Greensboro sit-ins2328:Give Us the Ballot1986:on August 28, 20191907:on August 27, 20191759:Jackson Daily News1166:herb.ashp.cuny.edu913:Coretta Scott King894:

830:Roles of the union819:Tri-State Defender592:sanitation workers451:Sanitation strikes210:Sanitation workers159:Sanitation workers70:Memphis, Tennessee6535:1968 in Tennessee6497:

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2480:Birmingham attack2460:Rock Hill sit-ins2411:Sibley Commission2406:Nashville sit-ins2278:Gebhart v. Belton2264:Briggs v. Elliott2257:Bolling v. Sharpe2218:Sweatt v. Painter2129:, episode of the2011:WMC Action News 51932:Commercial Appeal1818:978-0-470-17710-51787:. April 3, 1968.1744:Commercial Appeal1575:978-0-393-04339-61539:978-0-470-17710-51507:978-0-393-04339-61383:978-0-393-04339-61321:978-0-393-04339-61291:978-0-393-04339-61259:978-0-393-04339-61202:978-0-393-04339-61011:King Encyclopedia866:End of the strike781:We Shall Overcome723:Our will be done,495:

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